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"The term coaching is derived from a
French term that means to convey a valued person from one point to
another." (Haas, 1993). While the term in that sense
referred to travel by a stagecoach-like conveyance, that meaning
fits well in the context of precepting a student in your
practice.
Long recognized as an effective
means of improving performance in sports and the performing arts,
coaching has more recently received attention as a means of
supporting professional development and improving performance of
the management team. The coaching process parallels the
precepting process: defining goals, planning means to achieve
goals, sharing information and demonstrating techniques, role
modeling, giving corrective feedback, changing strategy to address
changing situations, and clarifying and validating
perceptions.
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Characteristics of
the Coaching Relationship Applied to Precepting
(adapted from Farley, 1990)
- Preceptor and student forge a
partnership.
- Preceptor and student commit to
produce a result.
- Preceptor and student accept each
other nonjudgmentally.
- Preceptor agrees to encourage the
student to improve. Student agrees to listen to coach's
interpretations.
- Preceptor acknowledges the
uniqueness of each student, each relationship and each
situation.
- Preceptor and student prepare for
coaching encounters and practice their roles in the coaching
relationship.
- Preceptor and student must give and
receive information and feedback.
- Preceptor and student integrate
into the team and exhibit a willingness to go beyond what is
already achieved.
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Effective coaches use five
techniques, sometimes blended in various combinations. These
techniques, when to use each, the intended outcome, and the skills
that each requires are shown below.
| Coaching
Techniques |
When to
use |
Intended
Outcome |
Coach's
Skills |
|
|
|
|
| Educate |
When goals, roles, or
conditions change |
New knowledge and
skills are required |
Articulate performance
expectations clearly |
|
To orient a
newcomer |
Confidence
increases |
Recognize "real life"
learning laboratories |
|
When the coach is
new |
A broader perspective
is gained |
Reinforce
learning |
|
When new skills are
needed |
|
Role model |
|
|
|
|
| Sponsor |
When an individual can
make a special contribution |
Outstanding skill or
contribution is showcased |
"Debureaucratize" |
|
To let an outstanding
skill speak for itself |
Skill is fine-tuned or
perfected |
Dismantle barriers to
performance |
|
|
Individual is
recognized |
Let go of
control |
|
|
|
Provide access to
information and people |
|
|
|
|
| Encourage |
Before or after a
first-time experience |
Enhanced confidence
and skills |
Express genuine
appreciation |
|
When affirming good
performance |
Improved
performance |
Listen |
|
When simple, brief
corrections are needed |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Counsel |
When problems
interfere with performance |
Behavior is
redirected |
Listen |
|
When educating and
encouraging fail to attain desired level of performance |
Enhanced sense of
ownership and accountability |
Give clear, useful
feedback |
|
Responding to setbacks
and disappointments to speed recovery |
Renewed
commitment |
Facilitate
problem-solving |
|
|
|
|
| Confront |
When emotions have
cooled after a conflict |
Open up
communication |
Listen |
|
When privacy can be
assured |
Establish mutual
understanding |
Give direct, useful
feedback |
|
When performance does
not match the expectation |
Effect a change in
behavor |
Discuss sensitive
issues with "over-emotionalizing" |
|
|
Establish
trust |
Communicate
objectively, directly, clearly |
|
|
Reassignment |
|
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Notice that the skill of listening is
considered important in more than one of the coaching
techniques. Listening is also of great importance throughout
the precepting process--from the time of the initial contact with
the student, when you are identifying and clarifying objectives and
plans and throughout your precepting relationship. Careful,
attentive listening is a communication tool which has probably
already proven valuable in your practice. One recommended
listening technique is called active listening. When using
active listening, you listen carefully to what another person says
to you and then repeat the essence of the message back to the
person for his or her verification. Active listening is of
special importance early in the student/preceptor relationship to
assure mutual understanding and avoid erroneous assumptions.
Decide which coaching techniques
to apply in the situations in the boxes that follow.
Which Coaching Technique(s) Would You Use in These
Situations?
- When the student performs
well
- When the student does not meet
expectations and you do not know the reason
- When the student fails to try or
tries to fail
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Possible Reason
- Student does not match role
expectations
- Student is unclear about
performance expectations
- Student's perception that
performance expected is not really important
- Student lacks skill
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Possible Coaching Techniques |
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Possible Reason
- Student lacks desire or motivation
to perform at expected level
- Real or imagined barriers interfere
with performance
- Student may receive more reward
(e.g., attention) for poor performance than for good
performance
- Student has not received adequate
performance feedback
- Student does not perceive positive
outcomes (or rewards) for good performance
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Possible Coaching
Techniques |
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Coaching Techniques for Particular
Situations
1. When the student
performs well
- Encourage the student by
recognizing good performance and giving positive
feedback
- Sponsor if there are opportunities
to showcase the student
2. When the student
does not meet expectations and you do not know the
reason
- Confront the student with
his/her deficiencies re: expectations. Ask for
feedback.
- Depending upon reasons for failure
to meet expectations, education or counseling may be
appropriate
3. When the student
fails to try or tries to fail
- Gather more information about the
student's failure to perform
Note: As you gather more information about the
student's failure to perform, you may discover
that one recommended technique is more appropriate than
another. For example, simply
giving information or instruction (educate) may be all that the
student needs to succeed.
However, if the failure is due to more than a simple lack of
information, some counselin
gapproaches to explore reasons for failure, or some confronting
approaches may be
effective.
| Possible Reasons
for a Student's Failure |
Recommended Coaching Technique(s): |
|
|
|
Student does not match role
expectations.
|
Confront |
|
|
| Student is unclear about
performance standards. |
Educate |
|
|
Student's perception that the
performance expected is
not really important. |
Educate; Encourage;
Counsel |
|
|
| Student lacks skill. |
Confront; Educate;
Encourage; Counsel |
|
|
Student lacks desire or motivation
to perform at
expected level. |
Confront;
Counsel |
|
|
| Real or imagined barriers interfere
with performance. |
Sponsor |
|
|
| Student may receive more reward
(e.g., attention) for poor performance than for good
performance. |
Confront; Counsel;
Encourage |
|
|
Student does not perceive positive
outcomes
(or rewards) for good performance. |
Confront; Counsel;
Encourage; Sponsor |
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As a preceptor, you may seek
coaching as a useful means of refining your preceptor skills.
The faculty member or a peer might serve as your coach.
Cognitive coaching is a peer coaching technique. One acts as
coach, the other as the partner who receives coaching. The
coach and partner:
- Discuss the teaching goals of the
partner.
- Describe the student encounter in
which the partner will work toward these goals. The coach
asks clarifying questions in order to fully explore the situation
and the alternatives for the partner's actions.
- Identify a few specific actions
that the partner will take during a student encounter and the
alternatives for the partner's actions.
- Identify a few specific actions
that the partner will take during a student encounter to work
toward these goals.
- Agree that the coach will observe
the encounter and later give feedback to the partner.
The peer coach then observes the
partner during the encounter with the student. The peer coach
gives feedback to the partner. They discuss how well the
planned approaches worked and what additional approaches might be
tried in the future. They may agree to continue goal setting,
planning, and observing with feedback. The cognitive coaching
technique can be applied in a single episode or as an ongoing
approach to faculty development.
You might find peer coaching helpful
when you are trying new approaches such as Socratic questioning
with students. You might also serve as a peer coach for
another preceptor.
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